1. Overview

This lecture introduces language variation and change with a focus on sociolinguistics. It addresses the inevitability and continuous nature of language change, linked variation and change, internal and external factors driving change, and the actuation and diffusion of innovations. Key topics include sociolinguistic variation by social class, gender, and identity; geographical and lexical variation; theories of language change mechanisms (economy, expressiveness, analogy); and sociolinguistic studies on linguistic prestige and norms. The course also outlines historical influences, contemporary examples like palatalization, and social processes underlying linguistic change.

2. Core Concepts & Key Elements

Languages are always changing; change is the rule, not the exception (Blevins, 2004).
The golden age myth: belief in an immutable pure language is illusionary; change often seen negatively historically.
Resistance to changes like new pronunciations or grammar is common, but natural evolution occurs.
Variation is the observable state of language at any time; change occurs when some variants replace others over time (Saussure’s synchrony vs. diachrony).
Variation is multi-layered: lexical, grammatical, phonetic, stylistic; the same speaker can produce variants.
Geographical variation: accents and dialects separated by isoglosses; dialects are mutually intelligible.
Standard English: prestigious but not linguistically superior; RP and General American are standard accents.
Lexical variation (e.g., pop/coke/soda in the US) exemplifies regional differences and non-absolute isoglosses.
Sociolinguistic variation is correlated with social class, gender, ethnicity, and identity (Labov, Trudgill, Milroy).
Post-vocalic /r/ in NYC (Labov 1963) shows social stratification: more /r/ use in upper-class.
Gender differences: women tend to use more standard forms (overt prestige), men more non-standard (covert prestige).
Agents of change often include middle-class women and working-class men; changes are often stigmatized.
Contemporary Palatalisation (ICP): young speakers’ innovations involving affricates (/tʃ/, /dʒ/) spreading phonetic changes.
Age grading vs. change in progress studied via apparent time method.
Variation and identity: nonstandard forms can mark group solidarity (Labov’s Martha’s Vineyard).
Social networks influence linguistic innovation dispersion (Milroy & Milroy).
Language change principles include internal factors: economy (least effort), expressiveness, analogy; and external factors: language contact, borrowings.
Grimm’s Law exemplifies regular sound changes.
External factors include invasions (Vikings, Normans), leading to pidgin, creole formation, diglossia, lexical borrowing.
Innovations diffuse socially; prestige and social factors influence adoption (Wells 1982).
Accommodation theory: speakers converge speech for social approval (Giles).
Actuation of change requires interplay of cognitive, social, historical factors (Smith, Weinreich et al.).
Post-WWII socio-historical changes in education and social attitudes in UK and US favored linguistic change, decline of RP prestige.
Future trends: globalization, more L2 English speakers; potential for changes like plural regularization.

3. High-Yield Facts

Language change is constant (Blevins 2004).
Saussure’s concepts: Synchrony = language state at one time; Diachrony = language change over time.
Isogloss: dialect boundary; dialects mutually intelligible.
Labov NYC study (1963): post-vocalic /r/ highest in Saks Fifth Avenue workers, lowest in Klein workers.
Women tend to over-report use of standard forms; men under-report non-standard usage.
ICP examples: tune /ˈtjuːn/ → /ˈtʃuːn/, assume /əˈsjuːm/ → /əˈʃuːm/.
Concept of grammaticalisation: going to → gonna as future marker.
Grimm’s law: /p/ → /f/, /t/ → /θ/ (father from pater).
Viking contact led to Middle English simplification (loss of case).
Norman French influenced English vocabulary for 200+ years (gov, law, cuisine).
Accommodation fosters convergence of linguistic features.
Education Act 1944 in UK made secondary education free, breaking RP monopoly.
RP decline after 1960s linked to social changes and liberal ideologies.
By 1981 American public speech became more informal, closer to spoken English (McWhorter).
Social networks: dense networks resist change; loose networks promote it (Milroy).

4. Summary Table

Concept	Key Points	Notes
Language change	Constant, universal; variation precedes change	Saussure’s synchrony vs. diachrony
Golden age myth	False belief in language immutability	Change historically stigmatized
Variation kinds	Lexical, grammatical, phonetic, stylistic	Same speaker uses multiple variants
Geographical variation	Dialects, accents, isoglosses	Mutual intelligibility, social-political ties
Standard English	Prestigious, not linguistically superior	RP (UK), GA (US) as reference accents
Sociolinguistic variation	Correlated with class, gender, ethnicity, identity	Labov, Trudgill studies
Post-vocalic /r/ NYC	Stratified by social class	Prestige form increasing over time
Gender differences	Women use more standard forms; men favor non-standard	Overt vs. covert prestige
Agents of change	Middle-class women, working-class men	Often carry stigmatized changes
Contemporary Palatalisation	/tj/, /dj/ → affricates; spreading in young speakers	Change in progress or age grading?
Internal factors	Economy, expressiveness, analogy	Economy = least articulatory effort
External factors	Language contact, invasions, borrowings	Viking and Norman influence on English
Innovation diffusion	Social prestige & imitation key	Accommodation fosters convergence
Actuation of change	Cognitive/social/historical interaction	Post-war Brit/US social reform context
Post-war context	Education reforms, decline of RP	Liberal ideology drove linguistic liberalization
Future trends	Globalization, L2 speakers dominate	Regularization of plurals in contact varieties

5. Mini-Schema (ASCII)

Language Variation & Change
 ├─ Constant change and variation
 │    ├─ Golden age myth rejected
 │    ├─ Types: lexical, grammatical, phonetic, stylistic
 │    └─ Saussure: synchrony vs. diachrony
 ├─ Geographical variation
 │    ├─ Dialects, accents, isoglosses
 │    ├─ Standard English (RP, GA)
 │    └─ Regional lexical variation (pop/coke/soda)
 ├─ Sociolinguistic variation
 │    ├─ Social class stratification (Labov NYC /r/)
 │    ├─ Gender differences (Trudgill)
 │    ├─ Social networks (Milroy)
 │    └─ Identity and acts of solidarity (Martha’s Vineyard)
 ├─ Language change principles
 │    ├─ Internal: economy, expressiveness, analogy
 │    └─ External: contact, borrowings, invasions (Vikings, Normans)
 ├─ Innovation diffusion and actuation
 │    ├─ Prestige and imitation (Wells)
 │    ├─ Accommodation (Giles)
 │    └─ Sociohistoric context: post-WWII reforms and ideologies
 └─ Contemporary examples
      ├─ Contemporary Palatalisation (ICP)
      └─ Future trends: L2 influence, glocalization

6. Rapid-Review Bullets

Language change is the linguistic norm (Blevins, 2004).
Golden age myth: languages perceived as immutable is false.
Variation types: lexical, grammatical, phonological, stylistic.
Dialects separated by isoglosses; accents reflect pronunciation.
Standard English = RP (UK), GA (US); prestige not superiority.
Labov NYC (1963): post-vocalic /r/ tied to social class and prestige.
Women generally adopt more standard forms (overt prestige).
Agents of change: middle-class women, working-class men.
Contemporary Palatalisation involves changes /tj/→/tʃ/, /dj/→/dʒ/.
Apparent time method traces linguistic change across age groups.
Identity influences adoption of nonstandard variants (Martha’s Vineyard).
Social networks shape innovation spread: dense vs loose networks.
Economy principle promotes articulation shortcuts (dunno).
Expressiveness may lengthen forms (aujourd’hui).
Analogy drives regularization and extension of linguistic patterns.
External factors: Viking and Norman invasions simplified and enriched English.
Accommodation: speakers modify speech to match interlocutors (Giles).
Post-WWII social reforms and ideology facilitated break from RP dominance.
Modern American rhetoric shifted to informal speech (1960s onward).
Future trends impacted by the rise of L2 English speakers and globalization.

Language Variation and Change: Exam Revision Sheet

1. 📌 Essentials

Language is perpetually evolving; change is inevitable (Blevins, 2004).
Variation exists across lexical, grammatical, phonetic, and stylistic levels.
Saussure's synchrony: language at a specific time; diachrony: language over time.
Isoglosses mark dialect boundaries; dialects are mutually intelligible.
Standard English (RP, GA): prestigious but not superior linguistically.
Sociolinguistic factors include social class, gender, ethnicity, identity.
Labov’s NYC study (1963): post-vocalic /r/ use correlates with social status.
Women typically adopt more standard forms; men sometimes prefer non-standard.
Language change driven by internal factors (economy, analogy) and external influences (contact, borrowings).
Innovations spread via social prestige, social networks, and convergence (Giles).
External influences: Vikings, Normans, borrowing, pidgins, creoles.
Post-WWII social reforms decreased the dominance of prestige dialects like RP.
Contemporary phonetic changes include palatalization (e.g., /tʃ/) spreading among youth.
Future trends: globalization, more L2 speakers, regularization of patterns.

2. 🧩 Key Structures & Components

Isogloss — boundary separating dialect areas.
Dialect — mutually intelligible speech varieties within a region.
Standard English — socially prestigious variety, e.g., RP, GA.
Sociolinguistic variables — features that vary with social factors (e.g., /r/ in NYC).
Prestige forms — socially valued variants (overt prestige).
Innovators — early adopters driving change (middle-class women, working-class men).
Lexical variants — regional words (pop, coke, soda).
Palatalization — phonetic change involving /tʃ/, /dʒ/ spreading among youth.
Language contact — influence through invasions, borrowings.
Grimm’s Law — regular sound change rule for Germanic languages.

3. 🔬 Functions, Mechanisms & Relationships

Variation as the initial state before change occurs.
Social stratification affects variant use: higher status → prestige forms.
Gender differences: women tend to adopt standard variants — overt prestige.
Agents of change: middle-class women, working-class men.
Change mechanisms:
- Economy: reducing effort via ease of articulation.
- Analogy: extending existing patterns to new contexts.
- Expressiveness: emphasizing speaker identity or style.
External influences:
- Invasions (Vikings/Normans) introduced vocabulary and structural changes.
- Borrowings expand lexicon and influence pronunciation.
Diffusion:
- Prestige and social networks determine which variants spread.
- Accommodation theory (Giles): speakers modify speech for social approval.
Historical context:
- Post-WWII reforms and social shifts impacted the prestige landscape.
- Decline of RP influence in favor of informal norms.

4. 📊 Comparative Table

Item	Key Features	Notes / Differences
Synchrony vs. Diachrony	Synchrony: state at a specific time; Diachrony: change over time	Focus of different linguistic approaches
Standard English	Prestigious, not linguistically superior; used as norm	Includes RP (UK), GA (US)
Variant Types	Lexical, phonetic, grammatical, stylistic	Same speaker can use variants simultaneously
Isogloss	Boundary line between dialects	Usually correspond to phonetic or lexical features
Sociolinguistic Factors	Class, gender, ethnicity, identity	Influence variant use and change

5. 🗂️ Hierarchical Diagram

Language Change & Variation
 ├─ Types of Variation
 │    ├─ Lexical
 │    ├─ Grammatical
 │    ├─ Phonetic
 │    └─ Stylistic
 ├─ Influencing Factors
 │    ├─ Internal (economy, analogy)
 │    └─ External (contact, borrowings)
 ├─ Social Mechanics
 │    ├─ Prestige & Imitation
 │    ├─ Networks
 │    └─ Identity & Solidarity
 └─ Historical Influences
      ├─ Invasions & Borrowings
      └─ Social Reforms

6. ⚠️ High-Yield Pitfalls & Confusions

Confusing standard with superior; prestige does not imply correctness.
Overestimating the role of external contact; internal mechanisms (economy, analogy) are equally vital.
Misinterpreting Labov's study: /r/ use is socially stratified, not purely regional.
Assuming language change always improves language; often it's neutral or stigmatized.
Overlooking the role of social networks versus individual innovation.
Mistaking age grading (temporary variation) for change in progress.
Believing all dialects are equally valued; social valuation is context-dependent.
Thinking mid-century social reforms immediately caused change; they facilitated a shift over time.
Assuming phonetic change is conscious; often subconscious in natural speech.

7. ✅ Final Exam Checklist

Understand the concept of language change as a constant process.
Differentiate between synchrony and diachrony.
Recognize isoglosses and dialect boundaries.
Know the major sociolinguistic variables: class, gender, ethnicity.
Recall key findings from Labov’s NYC study.
Describe the roles of internal and external factors in change.
Explain how innovations spread socially, via prestige and networks.
Understand the influence of invasions and borrowings on vocabulary and structure.
Be familiar with the decline of RP and the rise of informal speech post-1960s.
Know what palatalization is and its relevance to youth speech.
Connect social identity with innovation and variation.
Recognize how education policies and social attitudes shape language norms.
Be aware of future trends: globalization, L2 influence, regularization patterns.
Understand key mechanisms: economy, analogy, accommodation.
Comprehend how external contacts shape language evolution.
Appreciate the importance of social networks and prestige in diffusion.

End of Revision Sheet

Sociolinguistic Dynamics of Language Change

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1. Overview

2. Core Concepts & Key Elements

3. High-Yield Facts

4. Summary Table

5. Mini-Schema (ASCII)

6. Rapid-Review Bullets

Sociolinguistic Dynamics of Language Change

Crée tes propres fiches en 30 secondes

Language Variation and Change: Exam Revision Sheet

1. 📌 Essentials

2. 🧩 Key Structures & Components

3. 🔬 Functions, Mechanisms & Relationships

4. 📊 Comparative Table

5. 🗂️ Hierarchical Diagram

6. ⚠️ High-Yield Pitfalls & Confusions

7. ✅ Final Exam Checklist

Sociolinguistic Dynamics of Language Change

Sociolinguistic Dynamics of Language Change

Which internal factor is primarily associated with language change, according to the principles outlined in the course?

Sociolinguistic Dynamics of Language Change

Progression globale

Détail par thème

Introduction au système

Les différents types

Structure axiale

Structure appendiculaire

Suivi de progression par thème