1. 📌 Essentials

• Apartheid: System of institutionalized racial segregation in South Africa.
• Key Activists: Steve Biko, Nelson Mandela, Albertina Sisulu, Malala Yousafzai.
• Spatial Segregation: Enforced land and urban separation, often justified as "good neighbourliness- Environmental Racism: Disproportionate environmental hazards and pollution in communities of color.
• Major Laws: Jim Crow Laws and Plessy v. Ferguson upheld racial segregation in the US.
• Climate Inequality: Vulnerable populations suffer most from climate change impacts.
• Colonial Roots: Exploitation and systemic inequality rooted in colonial history.
• Data (USA): Over 68% of Black Americans live near hazardous waste sites; higher pollution exposure.
• "Cancer Alley": Example of environmental racism affecting Black communities in Louisiana.
• Quotes: Emphasize sacrifice, hope, education, and land as symbols of resistance and change.
• Goals: Dismantle spatial barriers, address environmental injustice, promote activism.

2. 🧩 Key Structures & Components

• Apartheid System — Racial segregation laws and policies.
• Activists — Leaders advocating for justice and equality.
• Segregated Urban Spaces — Residential and commercial zones divided by race.
• Environmental Hazards — Waste sites, polluted air, and water disproportionately affecting marginalized groups.
• Legal Frameworks — Jim Crow Laws, apartheid legislation.
• Climate Vulnerability — Disproportionate effects on poor and marginalized populations.
• Historical Roots — Colonial exploitation and systemic discrimination.
• Data & Reports — Studies highlighting environmental injustice (e.g., Toxic Wastes and Race in 1987).

3. 🔬 Functions, Mechanisms & Relationships

• Activists → Mobilize awareness and resistance against segregation and injustice.
• Segregation Policies → Enforce spatial separation, creating disparities in access to resources.
• Environmental Racism → Results from systemic policies placing hazards in marginalized communities.
• Legal Laws → Institutionalize racial separation, legitimizing discrimination.
• Climate Change → Exacerbates existing inequalities, hitting vulnerable groups hardest.
• Historical Exploitation → Underpins current global inequalities, linking colonialism to environmental and social disparities.
• Data → Demonstrates correlation between race and environmental hazards.
• Hierarchy:

  Colonial Roots
       ↓
  Systemic Discrimination
       ↓
  Segregation & Environmental Hazards
       ↓
  Health Disparities & Social Inequality
  

4. Comparative Table

5. 🗂️ Hierarchical Diagram

Systemic Discrimination
 ├─ Colonial Roots
 │    ├─ Exploitation
 │    └─ Land Dispossession
 ├─ Racial Segregation
 │    ├─ Apartheid
 │    └─ Jim Crow Laws
 ├─ Environmental Hazards
 │    ├─ Waste Sites
 │    └─ Polluted Air/Water
 └─ Health & Social Disparities

6. ⚠️ High-Yield Pitfalls & Confusions

• Confusing apartheid with general segregation; focus on legal/state enforcement.
• Mistaking environmental racism as only localized; it is systemic and policy-driven.
• Overlooking colonial roots when discussing global inequalities.
• Assuming all marginalized groups face the same hazards; disparities vary by race and location.
• Misinterpreting "good neighbourliness" as genuine; it was a justification for segregation.
• Ignoring the role of activism in dismantling systemic barriers.
• Confusing legal segregation laws (Jim Crow) with informal or de facto segregation.
• Underestimating the health impacts of environmental hazards on communities.

7. ✅ Final Exam Checklist

• Define apartheid and identify its main features.
• Name key activists and their contributions.
• Explain spatial segregation and its societal impacts.
• Describe environmental racism and give examples.
• Summarize major laws supporting segregation (Jim Crow, P v. Ferguson).
• Discuss how climate change affects vulnerable populations.
• Trace colonial roots of systemic inequalities.
• Interpret data on environmental hazards affecting communities of color.
• Recognize "Cancer Alley" as an environmental justice case.
• Understand the hierarchical relationship between colonialism, segregation, and environmental injustice.
• Recall quotes from activists emphasizing sacrifice, hope, and education.
• Identify the goals of dismantling spatial and environmental barriers.
• Differentiate between systemic and localized environmental hazards.
• Connect historical laws to current social and environmental disparities.
• Be familiar with the role of activism in social change.