Fiche de révision : Irish History and Mythology Fundamentals

📋 Course Outline

1. Geography and political divisions of Ireland and Northern Ireland
2. Irish mythology: The Otherworld and Celtic mythological cycles
3. Pre-Christian Irish gods, goddesses, and legendary heroes
4. English conquest of Ireland: Anglicization and plantation policies under Tudor rule
5. Religious and political conflicts under James II and William of Orange
6. The Protestant Ascendancy and governance of 18th century Ireland
7. Penal Laws and legal restrictions on Catholics and Presbyterians in Ireland
8. Irish Parliament subordination, trade restrictions, and the Irish Patriot movement

📖 1. Geography and political divisions of Ireland and Northern Ireland

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Protestants : Members of Christian denominations who settled in Ireland during the plantations, often from England and Scotland, and who were distinct from the native Irish Catholic population.
• Presbyterians : A Protestant group among the settlers in Ireland, particularly from Scotland, characterized by a church governance system led by elders.
• Protestant ascendency : ➢ These changes
• Henry VIII : King of England who initiated the English Reformation, leading to the establishment of the Church of England and separation from the Catholic Church.
• British Isles : 1 Geography Great Britain = England, Wales, Scotland United Kingdom

📝 Essential Points

• Northern Ireland covers 14,330 km2 of the island, which has a total area of 84,421 km2.
• Ireland is divided into four provinces: Ulster, Leinster, Connacht, and Munster.
• The Republic of Ireland is a parliamentary republic with a ceremonial president and an executive Taoiseach.
• The Irish Parliament, called the Oireachtas, has two houses: Seanad Eireann (Senate) and Dail Eireann (House of Representatives).
• Elections for the Irish Parliament are held every maximum of five years, and the Dail nominates the Taoiseach.
• VII) ➔ Ireland ruled directly by the British
• The king not being in Ireland often, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland = the “viceroy” = head of the executive in Ireland
• Based in Dublin Castle (= administration of British power is seated)
• Ruling class = Anglicans
• Anglicans = Protestant ascendency = the political, economic, and social dominance of the Anglican elite in Ireland from the late 17th to the early 20th
• Landowners, barristers, politicians, clergymen, military officers
• Also known as the Anglo-Irish 3.1.1. The Penal Laws Treaty of Limerick (1691):
• Guarantees of religious freedom for Catholics ➔ Ignored by British government Penal Laws:  Legal restrictions imposed on Catholics (and Presbyterians)  Laws during the reigns of Elizabeth I (1558), William and Mary (1691-92), William III (1695-1698, Anne (1702-1709), George I (1714-1725), George II (1727-1759)  If you’re a Presbyterian in Ireland under the Penal laws, you can’t: o Go to university o Be elected o Vote in parliamentary elections o Hold any public office o Presbyterian marriages were not recognized  If you’re a Catholic in Ireland under the Penal Laws, you can’t: o Buy land or lease it for over 31 years o Inherit land from protestants o Marry protestants o Give you rchildren a catholic education o Send your children abroad for education o Be a teacher in public or private schools o Be elected: vote in

💡 Key Takeaway

Northern Ireland covers 14,330 km2 of the island, which has a total area of 84,421 km2.

📖 2. Irish mythology: The Otherworld and Celtic mythological cycles

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Tir na nOg : Of archeological record and writing of later Irish monks No towns No money originally: berter system Basus of society: clan or fine = four generations
• Irish (Gaelic) : A Celtic language spoken primarily in Ireland, with related forms in Scotland, Wales, and Brittany, holding national and cultural significance.

📝 Essential Points

• The Otherworld, Tir na nOg, is a parallel realm where gods and ancestors reside, with a different flow of time.
• The Mythological Cycle includes tales about the Tuatha Dé Danann and the Book of Invasions.
• The Ulster Cycle contains legends about heroes from Ulster.
• The Fenian Cycle features legends about Fionn mac Cumhaill and his warriors.
• Irish goddesses, gods and heroes Pre-Christian Ireland: oral tradition of myths and tales Myths and legends passed down thanks to monks Rich body of Celtic literature Grouped in ‘cycles’:
  • Mythological Cycle: tales about the Tuatha Dé Danann - Includes the Lebor Gabala Erenn (book of invasions)
  • Ulster Cycle: legends about heroes from Ulster
  • Fenian Cycle: legends about Fionn mac Cumhaill and his band of warriors
  • Cycle of the Kings: legends about historical and semi-historical kings of Ireland Tuatha dé Danann = old gods of Ireland: - Descendants of Danu - Amoral: Acted like humans did - Children with humans = a race of mortals with special powers
  • Danu (or Dana): - Mother-goddess - No surviving myths or legends
  • The Dagda = father figure like - ‘all father’ - Protector of the tribe - Fertility and agriculture - Strength - Magic, Druidry and wisdom - Life and death Magic objects: - Staff/club: could bring back to life or cause instant death - Cauldron: bottomless cauldron - Harp: put the seasons back in order (by playing a magic harp)
  • The Morrigan: - ‘great queen’ or ‘phantom queen’ - Goddess of fate, war and death and doom - Guardian of the territory and its people Triple goddess: - = 3 different forms and names: Badb, Macha, the Morrigan - Shapeshifter: crow form = the Badb - Causes fear or brings courage on the battlefield - Later associated with the figure of the banshee
  • Brigid: - Daughter of the Dagda - Wisdom, poetry, healing and protection - Smithing, domesticated animals A triple goddess: - Brigid the goddess of poetry - Brigid the smith - Brigid the healer - Associated with pagan festival of Imbole = beginning of spring Brigid’s cross: put it next to the entrance of the house, brings luck Since 2023 = national holiday
  • Saint Brigid: very important figure in Ireland - Feminist figure (first abortion) - Christian - Turns dirty bath water into beer Oison and Niamh Oisin, son of Fionn, falls in love with Niamh Chinn Oir (Niamh of the golden hair) She is a princess from Tir na nOg He lives with her in the other world but wants to come back in Ireland to see his family but centuries went by and everything changed.
• Fomorians 6. Milesians
• = the humans who settled the land
• A group of people which sails to Ireland from Iberia (span/Portugal)
• Represents the Irish people/Gaels
• Wage war with the Tuatha dé Danaan
• Eventually both groups agree to divide Ireland between them
• The Milesians take the world above (=visible world)
• The Tuatha dé Danaan settle in the world below: the Celtic Otherworld = Tir na nOg = “the land of Youth”
• Their descendants are the aos si or simply the si = Irish fairies, people believing in fairies still today Folk = oral stories, no link to religion, much closer to us in the matter of time VS Myths = written stories, religious figures (gods and goddesses), very old  Cultural memory of successive waves of settlement? 1.2. Prehistoric Ireland “It is forever covered by fog and man-eating giants live there” “Ireland is a place were men live forever… but no woman can land on the shore and live” “Irish people are descendants of immigrants from Atlantis” 1.2.1. Paleolithic Ireland (Old Stone Age) 10,500 BC: oldest discovered signs of permanent residence 1.2.2. Mesolithic Ireland (Middle Stone Age) 8,000 BC – 4,000 BC: Settlers who crossed over from Scotland or Wales (?) Hunter-gatherer lifestyle (Irish elk, Flint tools) 1.2.3. Neolithic Ireland (New Stone Age) 4,000 BC – 2,500 BC: - Arrival of settlers from Continental Europe - More sedentary life - Reared

💡 Key Takeaway

Irish mythology is organized into cycles that preserve oral traditions and reflect pre-Christian Irish cultural worldview.

📖 3. Pre-Christian Irish gods, goddesses, and legendary heroes

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Chieftain : A leader who rules over a tribe or clan within Celtic societies, often responsible for governance and military leadership.
• Irish (Gaelic) : A Celtic language spoken in Ireland, recognized as the national and first official language, belonging to one of the two major Gaelic language families.
• **Milesians
• ** : A group of people who sailed from Iberia to settle in Ireland, representing the human ancestors of the Irish Gaels in mythology.
• Tuatha Dé Danann : Irish goddesses, gods and heroes Pre-Christian Ireland: oral tradition of myths and tales Myths and legends passed down thanks to monks Rich body of Celtic literature Grouped in ‘cycles’:
  • Mythological Cycle: tales about the Tuatha Dé Danann - Includes the Lebor Gabala Erenn (book of invasions)
  • Ulster Cycle: legends about heroes from Ulster
  • Fenian Cycle: legends about Fionn mac Cumhaill and his band of warriors
  • Cycle of the Kings: legends about historical and semi-historical kings of Ireland Tuatha dé Danann = old gods of Ireland: - Descendants of Danu - Amoral: Acted like humans did - Children with humans = a race of mortals with special powers
  • Danu (or Dana): - Mother-goddess - No surviving myths or legends
  • The Dagda = father figure like - ‘all father’ - Protector of the tribe - Fertility and agriculture - Strength - Magic, Druidry and wisdom - Life and death Magic objects: - Staff/club: could bring back to life or cause instant death - Cauldron: bottomless cauldron - Harp: put the seasons back in order (by playing a magic harp)
  • The Morrigan: - ‘great and instantly ages into an old man.

📝 Essential Points

• The Lebor Gabala Erenn narrates the mythical origins and invasions of Ireland.
• Fionn mac Cumhaill is the central hero of the Fenian Cycle, leading a band of warriors.
• After 37 years, pwp 5. Tuatha dé Danaan
• TRIBU DE DANA
• Descendants of Nemedians exiles who went “into the north of the world”
• A race of deities
• “the folk of the goddess danu” = Celtic mother goddess
• The gods and heroes of Irish mythology: most Irish myths are set during this period
• Fight the Fir Bolg and defeat them
• The Fir Bolg leave Ireland (or settle in Connacht): disappear from mythology
• The Tuatha dé Danaan also defeat the

💡 Key Takeaway

The Lebor Gabala Erenn narrates the mythical origins and invasions of Ireland.

📖 4. English conquest of Ireland: Anglicization and plantation policies under Tudor rule

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Protestantism : A branch of Christianity promoted by Tudor rulers, especially through the imposition of Anglicanism, which the majority of Irish people refused to adopt.

📝 Essential Points

• Anglicization was a forced assimilation policy imposing English social and cultural norms on Irish aristocrats.
• The 'surrender and regrant' policy required Irish lords to pledge allegiance to the English king to retain their lands.
• Large-scale plantations under Elizabeth I displaced Irish Catholic landowners and settled Protestant English and Scottish farmers.
• The Tudor Conquest of Ireland
• Parliament of Ireland : only open to the ‘English of Ireland’
• Ireland was mostly controlled by native Gaelic chieftains
• 15th: the era of English rule in Ireland shrank
• Henry VII
• Henry VIII
• Edward VI
• Mary I
• Elizabeth I
• 1485: Tudor dynasty in England
• Tudors want to reconquer Ireland
• 1494: Poyning’s law (Henry VII): subordination of the Parliament of Ireland to that of England: virtually powerless = direct Tudor rule
• 1541: Henry VIII = “King of Ireland”
• Absolute monarchy = deriving power by God, whose power you cannot control/challenge Because kings are the representative of God on Earth English conquest of Ireland:
• Two policies - Anglicization - Plantation Anglicization: Henry VIII
• Policy of ‘anglicization’ = Attempt to impose English social and cultural norms
• Different from cultural assimilation because they want to force them to assimilate = forced assimilation
• ‘surrender and regrant’ = wanted to impose the relation between the king and the barons/lords in the English feudal system ➔ The king gives land to barrons/lords and barons fight for them in exchange ➔ If they stop fighting for him or rebell = lose the land = Irish aristocrats and landowners were required to pledge allegiance to the king by acknowledging that they owed their titles and lands to the king
• Henry VIII: - Obsessed with having a male heir - 1525: Catherine of Aragon was 40 and unlikely to provide male heir to the thrown - His argument for divorce/get rid of her: he found in the bible that you could not marry your brother’s widow - Henry VIII decided he wanted to annul his marriage with Catherine of Aragon - England was a Roman Catholic kingdom - The Church had a lot of power in England: many areas of the law―such as family law―were controlled by the Catholic church.

💡 Key Takeaway

Anglicization was a forced assimilation policy imposing English social and cultural norms on Irish aristocrats.

📖 5. Religious and political conflicts under James II and William of Orange

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• William of Orange : 88) = Big changes under James II

• Parliament tends to be protestant but James II tends to be catholic

• He urges clemency towards Catholic = This is going to displease the parliament

• James II promoted Catholicism, alarming Protestant alites

• Fear of a Catholic dynasty after the birth of James II’s son in 1688 = parliament afraid to have a Catholic king and heir in an Protestant country

• Protestant leaders invited William of Orange to invade England and become king instead of James

• William of Orange = he was the closest relative to James, he was the husband of Jame’s daughter Mary

• Prince of Orange: major leader in the Netherlands BUT he was Protestant

• James escapes to Ireland which the help of soldiers from France (Louis

📝 Essential Points

• James II promoted Catholicism in a predominantly Protestant Parliament, causing alarm among Protestant elites.
• The Siege of Derry (1689) was a 105-day Protestant defense against Jacobite forces, resulting in thousands of deaths and lasting Protestant trauma.
• The Battle of the Boyne (1690) was a decisive Williamite victory over James II, symbolizing Protestant dominance in Ireland.
• The Vikings connected Ireland to the rest of the World
• Opened new trade routes: Byzantine Empire and Muslim central and western Asia
• Imported silver, silk, and goods from the Middle East How did the Gaels react to this invasion?
• Irish kings initially struggled to resist Viking expansion
• Rise of powerful Gaelic dynasty: Munster
• King = Brian Boru (he was perceived as the one who stood up against the Vikings, but not really true)
• Captured Viking cities: Limerick and Dublin ➔ He not only wanted to take over the Vikings territories but the whole Ireland
• Conquered Gaelic kingdoms
• 1002: ‘High King of Ireland’
• Vikings + some Gaelic kingdoms : rebelled
• Battle of Clontarf in 1014 ➔ Victory for Brian and his allies
• Irish won the battle, but Brian Boru was killed ➔ End of Viking expansion
• Boru = national Hero in Ireland
• His reign is seen as a time of great unity and strength in Irish history  Victory against the Vikings or Gaelic civil war?
• Historians still disagree! What happened to the Vikings after this?
• End of 10th century: conversion to Christianity
• Vikings gradually shifted from raiders to settlers, intermarrying with the Irish = cultural assimilation
• Formed a hybrid culture: Hiberno-Norse Viking influence on Ireland:
• Established major ports and trade routes (Irish textiles and furs trades with England, France, and Scandinavia)
• Introduced

💡 Key Takeaway

The struggle between Catholic and Protestant monarchs underpinned violent conflicts that shaped Ireland’s sectarian divisions.

📖 6. The Protestant Ascendancy and governance of 18th century Ireland

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Population : The great Hunger (or Great Famine) Irish Rebellion of 1798 = failed attempt to create an independent, Irish republic Consequence: Act of Union 1801
• Protestant Ascendancy : The political, economic, and social dominance of the Anglican elite in Ireland from the late 17th to the early 20th century, composed mainly of landowners, barristers, politicians, clergymen, and military officers.

📝 Essential Points

• Ireland was ruled directly by Britain with the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland as the king’s representative.
• The Protestant Ascendancy was the political, economic, and social dominance of the Anglican elite in Ireland.
• Dublin Castle served as the seat of British administration in Ireland.
• The Anglo-Irish were the ruling class composed mainly of Anglican landowners, barristers, politicians, and military officers.
• VII) ➔ Ireland ruled directly by the British
• The king not being in Ireland often, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland = the “viceroy” = head of the executive in Ireland
• Based in Dublin Castle (= administration of British power is seated)
• Ruling class = Anglicans
• Anglicans = Protestant ascendency = the political, economic, and social dominance of the Anglican elite in Ireland from the late 17th to the early 20th
• Landowners, barristers, politicians, clergymen, military officers
• Also known as the Anglo-Irish 3.1.1. The Penal Laws Treaty of Limerick (1691):
• Guarantees of religious freedom for Catholics ➔ Ignored by British government Penal Laws:  Legal restrictions imposed on Catholics (and Presbyterians)  Laws during the reigns of Elizabeth I (1558), William and Mary (1691-92), William III (1695-1698, Anne (1702-1709), George I (1714-1725), George II (1727-1759)  If you’re a Presbyterian in Ireland under the Penal laws, you can’t: o Go to university o Be elected o Vote in parliamentary elections o Hold any public office o Presbyterian marriages were not recognized  If you’re a Catholic in Ireland under the Penal Laws, you can’t: o Buy land or lease it for over 31 years o Inherit land from protestants o Marry protestants o Give you rchildren a catholic education o Send your children abroad for education o Be a teacher in public or private schools o Be elected: vote in
• The Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
• Land confiscations, English rule + anti-Catholic discrimination ➔ Deep resentment among Irish Catholics
• 1641 Irish rebellion
• Initial aim: to seize control of key strongholds and negotiate of food led to famine
• The Drogheda Massacre: o Small town o Priests and monks killed on sight by soldiers o Some Irish soldiers found refuge in churches but they were burned o Many soldiers who surrendered executed o Heads of massacred officers posted on poles at the gates of Dublin o Civilians massacred ➔ Cromwell is still hated in Ireland today
• Many Irish prisoners sent on ships to the Caribbean = Indentured servants on sugar cane plantations
• In Barbados and Montserrat
• Saint Patrick’s day celebrated in Montserrat Cromwell is responsible for a third wave of plantation:
• 1652 Act for settling of Ireland = goal is to colonize Ireland
• Catholic land ownership: 60% in 1641 +> 14% in 1703 => 5% in 1750s
• “To Hell or the Connacht!”: Irish were dispossessed and asked to go west in Connacht
• Cromwellian plantation => reduced Catholic ownership to nothings
• “perhaps the greatest exercise in ethnic cleansing in early modern Europe” (historian John Morrill)
• The majority of the population had very little access to land and resources ➔ This consolidated, secured, reinforced the power of the Protestant Ascendancy (= the political, economic, and social dominance of the Anglican (Church of England or Church of Ireland) elite in Ireland from the late 17th century to the early 20th century)
• landowners, barristers, politicians, clergymen, military officers…
• Also known as the Anglo-Irish 2.5.

💡 Key Takeaway

The Protestant Ascendancy entrenched Anglican elite control over Irish governance and society during the 18th century.

📖 7. Penal Laws and legal restrictions on Catholics and Presbyterians in Ireland

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Vikings : Norse seafarers from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden who raided and traded in Ireland from the late 8th to 11th centuries, capturing cities and monasteries and influencing Irish trade routes.
• The “viceroy” : The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, based in Dublin Castle, served as the British monarch's chief representative and head of the Irish administration.
• Penal Laws : Legal restrictions imposed during the 16th to 18th centuries that severely limited rights for Catholics and Presbyterians, including land ownership, holding public office, and access to universities.

📝 Essential Points

• Penal Laws imposed legal restrictions on Catholics and Presbyterians from the late 16th to 18th centuries.
• Catholics and Presbyterians were barred from owning land, holding public office, and attending certain universities.
• The Treaty of Limerick in 1691 guaranteed religious freedom for Catholics but was largely ignored by the British government.

💡 Key Takeaway

The Penal Laws institutionalized religious discrimination, severely limiting rights and opportunities for Catholics and Presbyterians.

📖 8. Irish Parliament subordination, trade restrictions, and the Irish Patriot movement

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Patriots : Irish nationalist groups in the 1760s advocating for legislative autonomy and free trade, led by figures like Henry Grattan.
• Preferred crop : Potato, which became the main food source for Irish peasants due to its high nutritive value and ease of cultivation.

📝 Essential Points

• The Irish Parliament was subordinate to the English Parliament and required England’s approval for legislation.
• Ireland faced trade restrictions such as high taxes on wool exports and bans on direct colonial trade and live cattle exports.

💡 Key Takeaway

The Irish Parliament was subordinate to the English Parliament and required England’s approval for legislation.

📅 Key Dates

📊 Synthesis Tables

Comparison of Irish Cycles and Mythological Figures

⚠️ Common Pitfalls & Confusions

1. Confusing the Mythological Cycle with the Ulster or Fenian Cycles.
2. Assuming all Irish gods and goddesses are worshipped pre-Christian.
3. Misinterpreting the significance of the Battle of the Boyne as purely religious.
4. Confusing the Irish Parliament's subordination with full legislative independence.
5. Overlooking the impact of Penal Laws on religious minorities.
6. Assuming the Gaelic resistance was solely military without cultural aspects.
7. Misunderstanding the role of Vikings as only raiders, not traders or settlers.

✅ Exam Checklist

1. Identify the main cycles of Irish mythology.
2. Describe the impact of the Tudor conquest on Irish landownership.
3. Explain the significance of the Battle of the Boyne.
4. Outline the structure of the Irish Parliament.
5. Discuss the effects of Penal Laws on Catholics and Presbyterians.
6. Summarize the concept of the Protestant Ascendancy.
7. Describe the role of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.
8. Explain the importance of the potato in Irish history.
9. Identify key figures in Irish nationalist movements.
10. Understand the geographic divisions of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
11. Describe the influence of Viking trade routes on Ireland.
12. Explain the policy of 'surrender and regrant' during Tudor rule.