Fiche de révision : Cardiology Fundamentals and Heart Diseases

📋 Course Outline

1. Heart Anatomy
2. Major Heart Diseases
3. Coronary Artery Disease
4. Heart Failure Types
5. Arrhythmias
6. Valvular Heart Disease
7. Diagnostic Tools
8. Risk Factors
9. Treatment Strategies
10. Prevention Approaches
11. Emerging Technologies
12. Global Heart Disease Trends

📖 1. Heart Anatomy

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Heart: A muscular organ approximately the size of a fist that pumps blood throughout the body via rhythmic contractions.
• Atria: The two upper chambers of the heart (right and left) that receive blood returning to the heart.
• Ventricles: The two lower chambers (right and left) responsible for pumping blood out of the heart to the lungs and the rest of the body.
• Right Atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from the body through the superior and inferior vena cavae.
• Right Ventricle: Pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary arteries toward the lungs.
• Left Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via pulmonary veins.
• Left Ventricle: Pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta to supply the body; it has the thickest muscular wall due to high workload.

📝 Essential Points

• The heart's four chambers work in coordinated sequence to ensure efficient blood circulation.
• The right side handles deoxygenated blood; the left side handles oxygenated blood.
• The myocardium (heart muscle) is responsible for contraction.
• The heart's position is slightly to the left of the midline in the thoracic cavity.
• The heart beats approximately 100,000 times daily, pumping about 5-6 liters of blood per minute at rest.
• The valves (tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral, aortic) prevent backflow and ensure unidirectional blood flow.

💡 Key Takeaway

The heart's structure—comprising four chambers and associated valves—enables it to effectively receive, pump, and circulate blood, maintaining vital oxygen and nutrient delivery throughout the body.

📖 2. Major Heart Diseases

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): A condition characterized by narrowing or blockage of coronary arteries due to atherosclerosis, leading to reduced blood flow to the heart muscle.
• Heart Failure: A clinical syndrome where the heart's ability to pump blood is insufficient to meet the body's needs, classified into systolic (reduced ejection fraction) and diastolic (preserved ejection fraction) types.
• Arrhythmias: Abnormal heart rhythms resulting from irregular electrical activity in the heart, including atrial fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia.
• Valvular Heart Disease: Disorders involving damage or defects in one or more of the heart's valves, such as stenosis (narrowing) or regurgitation (leakage).
• Myocardial Infarction (MI): Commonly known as a heart attack; occurs when blood flow to a part of the heart muscle is obstructed, causing tissue damage or death.
• Atherosclerosis: The buildup of fatty plaques within arterial walls, leading to narrowing and potential blockage of blood vessels.

📝 Essential Points

• Major heart diseases include CAD, heart failure, arrhythmias, and valvular diseases, each with distinct pathophysiology and clinical presentations.
• CAD is the leading cause of heart-related morbidity and mortality, often presenting with angina or silent ischemia.
• Heart failure results from structural or functional cardiac abnormalities, with symptoms like dyspnea, edema, and fatigue.
• Arrhythmias can cause significant complications such as stroke (e.g., in atrial fibrillation) or sudden cardiac death.
• Valvular diseases may be congenital or acquired, affecting blood flow and cardiac efficiency.
• Diagnostic tools like ECG, echocardiography, and cardiac catheterization are essential for identifying and managing these conditions.
• Risk factors such as hypertension, hyperlipidemia, smoking, diabetes, and family history significantly influence disease development.
• Treatment includes lifestyle modifications, pharmacotherapy (e.g., beta-blockers, statins), and surgical interventions like angioplasty or valve repair.

💡 Key Takeaway

Major heart diseases encompass a range of conditions affecting the heart's structure and function; understanding their mechanisms, risk factors, and treatments is vital for effective prevention and management.

📖 3. Coronary Artery Disease

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): A condition characterized by the narrowing or blockage of coronary arteries due to atherosclerosis, leading to reduced blood flow to the myocardium.

• Atherosclerosis: The buildup of lipid-laden plaques within arterial walls, causing thickening and loss of elasticity, which impairs blood flow.

• Angina Pectoris: Chest pain or discomfort resulting from transient myocardial ischemia due to insufficient blood supply through the coronary arteries.

• Myocardial Infarction (MI): Also known as a heart attack; occurs when a coronary artery is completely occluded, leading to irreversible damage to heart muscle tissue.

• Plaque Rupture: The breaking of an atherosclerotic plaque's fibrous cap, exposing thrombogenic material that can precipitate thrombus formation and arterial occlusion.

• Ischemia: An inadequate blood supply to an organ or part of the body, especially the heart muscle, leading to oxygen deprivation and potential tissue damage.

📝 Essential Points

• Pathophysiology: CAD primarily results from atherosclerosis, where lipid deposits and inflammatory processes cause plaque formation within coronary arteries, narrowing lumen and impairing blood flow.

• Clinical Manifestations:

  • Stable angina: predictable chest pain on exertion.
  • Unstable angina: occurs at rest, more severe, indicating high risk of MI.
  • Acute MI: persistent chest pain, often with ECG changes and elevated cardiac enzymes.

• Risk Factors:

  • Modifiable: hypertension, hyperlipidemia, smoking, diabetes, obesity, sedentary lifestyle.
  • Non-modifiable: age, male gender, family history of premature CAD.

• Diagnostic Tools:

  • ECG: detects ischemic changes or infarction.
  • Stress testing: assesses myocardial ischemia under exertion.
  • Coronary angiography: visualizes arterial blockages and guides intervention.

• Management Strategies:

  • Lifestyle modifications: diet, exercise, smoking cessation.
  • Pharmacotherapy: antiplatelets (aspirin), statins, beta-blockers, nitrates.
  • Revascularization: percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG).

• Complications: Heart failure, arrhythmias, sudden cardiac death, recurrent MI.

💡 Key Takeaway

Coronary Artery Disease is a preventable and treatable condition driven by atherosclerosis, with early detection and management being crucial to reducing morbidity and mortality associated with myocardial ischemia and infarction.

📖 4. Heart Failure Types

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Heart Failure (HF): A clinical syndrome where the heart's ability to pump blood is inadequate to meet the body's metabolic demands, leading to symptoms like dyspnea, fatigue, and fluid retention.

• Systolic Heart Failure (HFrEF): Heart failure characterized by reduced ejection fraction (<40%), due to impaired ventricular contraction and systolic dysfunction.

• Diastolic Heart Failure (HFpEF): Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (≥50%), caused by impaired ventricular relaxation and filling, despite normal systolic function.

• Left-sided Heart Failure: Failure of the left ventricle to pump blood effectively, leading to pulmonary congestion and edema.

• Right-sided Heart Failure: Failure of the right ventricle, resulting in systemic venous congestion, peripheral edema, and hepatomegaly.

• High-output Heart Failure: A rare form where the heart pumps an abnormally high volume of blood due to conditions like anemia or hyperthyroidism, but still fails to meet metabolic needs.

📝 Essential Points

• Heart failure is classified based on ejection fraction: HFrEF (reduced EF) and HFpEF (preserved EF), which influence treatment strategies.
• Systolic failure involves weakened contractility, often due to ischemic heart disease or cardiomyopathies.
• Diastolic failure involves stiff ventricles that cannot fill properly, commonly associated with hypertension and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.
• Left-sided failure often leads to pulmonary symptoms, while right-sided failure causes systemic venous congestion.
• Both types can coexist; right-sided failure frequently develops secondary to left-sided failure.
• Recognizing the type of heart failure guides pharmacological and non-pharmacological management.

💡 Key Takeaway

Heart failure is a complex syndrome with distinct types—systolic and diastolic—that differ in pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and treatment, making accurate classification vital for effective management.

📖 5. Arrhythmias

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Arrhythmia: An abnormality in the heart's rhythm, either too fast, too slow, or irregular, resulting from disrupted electrical signals in the heart.

• Atrial Fibrillation (AFib): A common supraventricular arrhythmia characterized by rapid, disorganized electrical activity in the atria, leading to an irregularly irregular heartbeat.

• Ventricular Tachycardia (VT): A rapid heart rhythm originating from the ventricles, typically with a rate exceeding 100 bpm, which can compromise cardiac output and lead to ventricular fibrillation.

• Bradyarrhythmia: Abnormally slow heart rhythms, often caused by sinus node dysfunction or atrioventricular (AV) block, resulting in a heart rate below 60 bpm.

• Heart Block (AV Block): A delay or complete interruption of electrical conduction between the atria and ventricles, classified into first, second, and third degree blocks.

• Ectopic Beat: An abnormal heartbeat originating outside the sinoatrial (SA) node, such as premature atrial contractions (PACs) or premature ventricular contractions (PVCs).

📝 Essential Points

• Arrhythmias result from disturbances in the heart's electrical conduction system, often involving the sinoatrial node, AV node, bundle of His, or Purkinje fibers.

• The ECG is the primary diagnostic tool, providing information on rhythm, rate, conduction intervals, and morphology.

• Some arrhythmias are benign (e.g., PACs), while others pose significant risks (e.g., ventricular fibrillation, sustained VT).

• Atrial fibrillation increases stroke risk due to thrombus formation in the atria; anticoagulation is often indicated.

• Treatment varies based on the type and severity: includes pharmacotherapy (e.g., beta-blockers, antiarrhythmics), electrical cardioversion, or device implantation (pacemakers, ICDs).

• Certain arrhythmias can be life-threatening, requiring immediate intervention, especially ventricular fibrillation and sustained VT.

💡 Key Takeaway

Arrhythmias are diverse electrical disturbances of the heart that can range from benign to life-threatening; accurate diagnosis and tailored treatment are essential to prevent complications such as stroke, heart failure, or sudden cardiac death.

📖 6. Valvular Heart Disease

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Valvular Heart Disease (VHD): A condition involving damage, malfunction, or abnormality of one or more of the heart's four valves (aortic, mitral, pulmonary, tricuspid), affecting blood flow through the heart.

• Stenosis: Narrowing of a heart valve that impedes blood flow, leading to increased workload on the heart. Common types include aortic stenosis and mitral stenosis.

• Regurgitation (Insufficiency): Leakage of blood backward through a valve when it should be closed, causing volume overload. Examples include mitral regurgitation and aortic regurgitation.

• Bicuspid Aortic Valve: A congenital abnormality where the aortic valve has only two leaflets instead of three, increasing risk for stenosis and regurgitation.

• Rheumatic Heart Disease: An autoimmune response to rheumatic fever that damages heart valves, often causing mitral stenosis and regurgitation.

• Prosthetic Valves: Artificial heart valves (mechanical or bioprosthetic) used to replace diseased valves, with considerations for anticoagulation and durability.

📝 Essential Points

• Etiology: Common causes include degenerative calcific changes (especially in the elderly), rheumatic fever, congenital malformations, and infective endocarditis.

• Pathophysiology: Valve stenosis causes increased pressure gradients and hypertrophy; regurgitation leads to volume overload and dilation of chambers.

• Clinical Features: Symptoms depend on severity; may include exertional dyspnea, fatigue, palpitations, chest pain, and signs of heart failure.

• Physical Exam Findings:

  • Murmurs (e.g., systolic ejection murmur in aortic stenosis, diastolic murmur in mitral stenosis).
  • Signs of heart failure (e.g., pulmonary crackles, peripheral edema).

• Diagnosis:

  • Echocardiography: Gold standard for assessing valve structure, function, and severity.
  • Other Tests: Cardiac MRI, cardiac catheterization for detailed assessment.

• Management:

  • Medical: Symptom control, anticoagulation for prosthetic valves, management of heart failure.
  • Interventional: Valve repair or replacement via surgery or transcatheter procedures (e.g., TAVR for aortic stenosis).

• Complications: Heart failure, atrial fibrillation, thromboembolism, infective endocarditis, and sudden cardiac death.

💡 Key Takeaway

Valvular heart disease involves structural or functional abnormalities of the heart valves that disrupt normal blood flow, leading to significant hemodynamic consequences; early diagnosis and appropriate intervention are crucial for optimal outcomes.

📖 7. Diagnostic Tools

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Electrocardiogram (ECG): A non-invasive test that records the electrical activity of the heart over time, used to detect arrhythmias, ischemia, and infarction.
• Echocardiogram: An ultrasound imaging technique that visualizes heart structures and assesses function, including chamber size, wall motion, and valvular integrity.
• Cardiac Catheterization: An invasive procedure involving the insertion of a catheter into coronary arteries or heart chambers to diagnose blockages, measure pressures, and perform interventions.
• Stress Testing: A diagnostic method where physical or pharmacologic stress is applied to evaluate cardiac function and blood flow, primarily used to detect coronary artery disease.
• Holter Monitor: A portable device worn for 24-48 hours to continuously record heart rhythms, useful for detecting intermittent arrhythmias.
• Cardiac MRI: A detailed imaging modality that provides high-resolution images of cardiac anatomy, tissue characterization, and function, often used for complex cases.

📝 Essential Points

• ECG is the first-line diagnostic tool for arrhythmias, ischemia, and infarction; interpretation of ST segments, T waves, and QRS complexes is crucial.
• Echocardiography provides real-time assessment of cardiac structure and function, essential in diagnosing heart failure and valvular diseases.
• Cardiac catheterization is both diagnostic and therapeutic, especially in coronary artery disease; it allows for angiography and interventions like stent placement.
• Stress testing helps identify ischemia during increased cardiac workload; abnormal results suggest significant coronary artery obstruction.
• Holter monitoring is valuable for detecting sporadic arrhythmias that may not appear on a standard ECG.
• Advanced imaging like cardiac MRI offers detailed tissue analysis, useful in cardiomyopathies and myocarditis.

💡 Key Takeaway

Accurate diagnosis of heart conditions relies on a combination of non-invasive and invasive tools, with ECG, echocardiography, and cardiac catheterization forming the cornerstone of cardiology diagnostics.

📖 8. Risk Factors

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Modifiable Risk Factors: Lifestyle or environmental factors that can be changed to reduce heart disease risk, such as hypertension, hyperlipidemia, smoking, and diabetes.

• Non-Modifiable Risk Factors: Inherited or uncontrollable factors that increase susceptibility to heart disease, including age, gender, and family history.

• Hypertension: Elevated blood pressure (>130/80 mmHg) that damages blood vessels and accelerates atherosclerosis.

• Hyperlipidemia: High levels of LDL cholesterol (>160 mg/dL), contributing to plaque buildup in arteries.

• Diabetes Mellitus: A metabolic disorder impairing blood vessel health, significantly increasing cardiovascular risk.

• Family History: Presence of heart disease in immediate relatives, indicating genetic predisposition.

📝 Essential Points

• Modifiable risk factors are targeted through lifestyle changes and medications to prevent or manage heart disease.
• Non-modifiable factors are important for risk stratification but cannot be altered.
• Hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes are primary contributors to atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease.
• Age and gender influence risk; men and older individuals are at higher risk.
• Family history indicates genetic susceptibility, necessitating early screening.
• Approximately 47% of adults have at least one key risk factor, emphasizing the importance of prevention.

💡 Key Takeaway

Understanding and managing both modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors are crucial steps in preventing and controlling heart disease, ultimately reducing morbidity and mortality.

📖 9. Treatment Strategies

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Lifestyle Modifications: Non-pharmacological interventions such as diet, exercise, smoking cessation, and weight management aimed at reducing cardiovascular risk factors and improving heart health.

• Pharmacological Treatments: Use of medications to manage heart diseases, including antihypertensives (e.g., ACE inhibitors, beta-blockers), statins for cholesterol control, antiplatelet agents (e.g., aspirin), and diuretics.

• Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (PCI): A minimally invasive procedure, such as angioplasty with stent placement, used to open blocked coronary arteries and restore blood flow.

• Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG): A surgical procedure that creates new pathways for blood to bypass blocked coronary arteries, improving myocardial perfusion.

• Device Therapy: Use of implantable devices like pacemakers, implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs), or ventricular assist devices (VADs) to manage arrhythmias and heart failure.

• Rehabilitation: Structured programs post-treatment focusing on physical activity, education, and risk factor management to improve cardiovascular outcomes and quality of life.

📝 Essential Points

• Effective treatment combines lifestyle changes, medications, and surgical or interventional procedures based on disease severity and patient-specific factors.
• Early intervention in acute events like myocardial infarction (MI) with PCI or thrombolytics can significantly reduce morbidity and mortality.
• Long-term management aims to control risk factors (hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes) to prevent disease progression.
• Device therapy is crucial for arrhythmia management and advanced heart failure, improving survival and reducing hospitalizations.
• Cardiac rehabilitation enhances recovery, promotes adherence to treatment, and reduces the risk of future cardiac events.

💡 Key Takeaway

Optimal treatment of heart disease involves a personalized approach integrating lifestyle, pharmacology, and surgical interventions, with early and comprehensive management being vital for improving patient outcomes.

📖 10. Prevention Approaches

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Primary Prevention: Strategies aimed at preventing the initial development of heart disease in healthy individuals through lifestyle modifications and risk factor management.

• Secondary Prevention: Interventions to prevent the progression or recurrence of heart disease in individuals already diagnosed, focusing on early detection and treatment to avoid complications.

• Tertiary Prevention: Measures to reduce disability and improve quality of life for patients with established heart disease by managing symptoms, preventing further deterioration, and rehabilitating.

• Modifiable Risk Factors: Heart disease risk factors that can be altered or controlled, such as hypertension, hyperlipidemia, smoking, and diabetes.

• Non-Modifiable Risk Factors: Inherent risk factors that cannot be changed, including age, gender, and family history.

• Lifestyle Modifications: Behavioral changes like adopting a healthy diet, increasing physical activity, quitting smoking, and limiting alcohol intake to reduce cardiovascular risk.

📝 Essential Points

• Prevention approaches are categorized into primary, secondary, and tertiary levels, each targeting different stages of disease development.
• Primary prevention focuses on healthy populations by controlling modifiable risk factors to prevent disease onset.
• Secondary prevention involves early detection and management of risk factors or early disease to prevent progression or recurrence.
• Tertiary prevention aims to improve outcomes and quality of life in patients with established heart disease through rehabilitation and management.
• Lifestyle modifications are fundamental across all prevention levels, significantly reducing the incidence and severity of heart disease.
• Pharmacological interventions (e.g., antihypertensives, statins, antiplatelet agents) complement lifestyle changes, especially in high-risk individuals.
• Public health initiatives and education are vital for promoting awareness and adherence to prevention strategies.
• Early identification of risk factors through screening (blood pressure, cholesterol, blood glucose) is crucial for effective prevention.

💡 Key Takeaway

Prevention of heart disease relies on a comprehensive approach that includes lifestyle changes, early detection, and medical management, tailored to the individual's risk level and disease stage, to reduce morbidity and mortality globally.

📖 11. Emerging Technologies

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Artificial Intelligence (AI): The simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems, enabling tasks such as diagnosis, imaging analysis, and predictive modeling in cardiology.

• Telemedicine: The remote diagnosis and treatment of patients through telecommunications technology, allowing for virtual consultations, remote monitoring, and follow-up care.

• Wearable Devices: Portable electronic gadgets (e.g., smartwatches, patches) that continuously monitor physiological parameters like heart rate, rhythm, and blood pressure, facilitating real-time health tracking.

• Genomic Medicine: The use of genetic information to tailor prevention, diagnosis, and treatment strategies, particularly for inherited heart conditions such as familial hypercholesterolemia.

• Robotic Surgery: Minimally invasive surgical procedures performed with robotic systems, offering enhanced precision and reduced recovery time in interventions like valve repair or bypass surgery.

• 3D Printing: The creation of three-dimensional models of cardiac structures from imaging data, aiding in surgical planning, device development, and personalized treatment approaches.

📝 Essential Points

• Emerging technologies like AI and machine learning improve diagnostic accuracy, risk stratification, and personalized treatment plans in cardiology.
• Telemedicine enhances access to cardiovascular care, especially in remote or underserved areas, and supports continuous patient monitoring.
• Wearable devices enable early detection of arrhythmias, ischemic events, and other cardiac abnormalities, promoting proactive management.
• Genomic medicine allows for targeted therapies based on individual genetic profiles, improving outcomes in inherited or complex heart diseases.
• Robotic surgery and 3D printing are revolutionizing surgical precision, planning, and patient-specific interventions, reducing complications and improving recovery.
• Integration of these technologies requires robust data security, ethical considerations, and clinician training to maximize benefits.

💡 Key Takeaway

Emerging technologies such as AI, telemedicine, wearables, and 3D printing are transforming cardiology by enabling more accurate diagnoses, personalized treatments, and improved patient outcomes through innovative, minimally invasive approaches.

📖 12. Global Heart Disease Trends

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Global Heart Disease Burden: The worldwide prevalence and impact of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), including mortality rates, morbidity, and economic costs, which are increasing due to lifestyle and demographic changes.

• Epidemiological Transition: The shift in disease patterns from infectious and acute illnesses to chronic, non-communicable diseases like heart disease, often associated with economic development and urbanization.

• Risk Factor Distribution: The varying prevalence of modifiable (e.g., hypertension, smoking, obesity) and non-modifiable (e.g., age, genetics) risk factors across different populations and regions, influencing heart disease trends.

• Health Disparities: Differences in heart disease prevalence, access to care, and outcomes based on socioeconomic status, geography, ethnicity, and healthcare infrastructure, affecting global disease management.

• Preventive Strategies: Public health initiatives aimed at reducing heart disease incidence worldwide through lifestyle modification, screening, and policy interventions tailored to regional needs.

• Emerging Trends: New developments such as increased use of telemedicine, genetic screening, and data analytics that are shaping the future landscape of global cardiovascular health management.

📝 Essential Points

• Cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of death globally, accounting for approximately 17.9 million deaths annually (WHO, 2021), with a rising trend in low- and middle-income countries.

• The epidemiological transition has led to a higher burden of non-communicable diseases like heart disease in developing regions, often outpacing infectious disease control.

• Lifestyle factors such as poor diet, physical inactivity, smoking, and urbanization contribute significantly to rising heart disease rates, especially in rapidly developing economies.

• Disparities in healthcare access and socioeconomic status result in uneven distribution of disease burden and outcomes, emphasizing the need for tailored public health policies.

• Prevention efforts focusing on modifiable risk factors have proven effective; however, implementation varies widely across regions due to resource constraints.

• Technological advancements, including telehealth and AI, are increasingly being adopted to improve diagnosis, management, and prevention of heart disease globally.

• Global initiatives by organizations like WHO and the World Heart Federation aim to reduce cardiovascular mortality through awareness, policy, and capacity-building programs.

💡 Key Takeaway

Heart disease trends are shifting worldwide due to demographic, lifestyle, and economic factors, making tailored prevention and management strategies essential to address the growing global burden effectively.

📊 Synthesis Tables

⚠️ Common Pitfalls & Confusions

1. Confusing right and left heart failure symptoms (pulmonary vs. systemic congestion).
2. Misidentifying types of arrhythmias; atrial fibrillation vs. ventricular tachycardia.
3. Overlooking the difference between systolic (HFrEF) and diastolic (HFpEF) heart failure.
4. Assuming all chest pain is angina; consider differential diagnoses.
5. Misinterpreting ECG changes; ischemia vs. infarction.
6. Confusing valvular stenosis with regurgitation; both impair blood flow but differ in mechanism.
7. Underestimating risk factors' impact on disease development.
8. Overreliance on a single diagnostic tool; combining ECG, echocardiography, and angiography provides comprehensive assessment.
9. Assuming all atherosclerotic plaques rupture; some remain stable without causing symptoms.
10. Misclassifying heart failure types based solely on symptoms without echocardiographic confirmation.
11. Overlooking emerging technologies' role in diagnosis and management.

✅ Exam Checklist

• Describe the basic anatomy of the heart, including chambers and valves.
• Explain the blood flow through the heart and the function of each chamber.
• Define major heart diseases: CAD, heart failure, arrhythmias, valvular disease.
• Differentiate between systolic (HFrEF) and diastolic (HFpEF) heart failure.
• Identify common arrhythmias and their clinical significance.
• List common valvular disorders and their effects on cardiac function.
• Describe diagnostic tools: ECG, echocardiography, angiography, stress testing.
• Recognize key risk factors for heart disease: modifiable and non-modifiable.
• Outline standard treatment strategies for CAD and heart failure.
• Discuss prevention approaches: lifestyle modification, pharmacotherapy.
• Highlight emerging technologies in diagnosis and treatment.
• Summarize global trends in heart disease prevalence and management.